Monkey Blood, Blue Blood, Pure Blood, True Blood, or Ordinary Blood? RH Negative Blood: Monkey Blood, Blue Blood, Pure Blood, True Blood, or Ordinary Blood? For simplicity, Rh. D is used for Rh positive blood and Rhd is used for Rh negative blood in this series of blood articles. Readers are reminded to use RH Negative Blood Dictionary if needed. In the beginning long before individual blood types (ABO) were identified, humans believed everyone had the same kind of blood. After all, you can’t look at blood and fathom out differences other than cherry red color from spurting arteries and a darker hue from veins. There are old documents that describe crude attempts at blood transfusion because of this observation. Karl Landsteiner, an Austrian scientist by birth, published a short note in 1. He observed this in the lab as he worked. We now call the clumping he noticed antibody action. Landsteiner would have never published this note unless he’d done hundreds of tests first in the lab. In 1. 90. 1 Landsteiner wrote another article, a landmark and revolutionary report, and in it he identified three separate blood groups he discovered in humans—types A, B, and O. Videos, photo gallery, plot outline, cast list, trivia, quotes, user reviews, and a message board. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the approximately 5 liters of blood that the blood vessels transport. Responsible for transporting. Emergency blood shortage. Donate now. All presenting donors are eligible to receive a $5 Amazon.com Gift Card claim code by email through 9/6. Restrictions apply. Created by Alan Ball. With Anna Paquin, Stephen Moyer, Sam Trammell, Ryan Kwanten. Telepathic waitress Sookie Stackhouse encounters a strange new supernatural world. In this paper, he published the steps he used, so that other interested scientists could repeat his results, and they did. Type. AB was discovered a year later in 1. Blood Work RdwLandsteiner lab colleagues, Alfred von Decastello and Andriano Sturli. Landsteiner detailed the background of his amazing discovery in his 1. Nobel lecture, and it was reprinted in Science 1. His background was in chemistry, but he notes the normal, ordinary chemical methods didn’t help him establish results, but the use of serological reagents did. These reagents opened the door to protein chemistry in plants and animals. He observed that proteins in plants and animals were different, and each species had individual and specific proteins. He describes how observing the protein reactions made him wonder if human blood contained the same individual differences. To find the answer, he’d have to make serological reagents for human blood testing like he did for plants and animals. He’d completed experiments on all types of animals: goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, cattle, sheep, chickens, chimpanzees, and Rhesus monkeys. In Landsteiner’s time period the clumping, that many had observed besides him, was assumed to be caused by diseased blood. Blood Work McvHowever, he believed it was due to individual differences or factors within the blood and not caused by disease. He called those factors, X Factors in his writings. To prove his theory that clumping wasn’t caused by disease, he chose healthy men as subjects—himself and five other men in his lab. It’s important to understand the procedure he used because he was pioneering all the blood work that followed and teaching his approach to his many assistants. This was the procedure as related to Zimmerman by Levine and Wiener: (3) He drew blood in tubes and let the specimen stand until it separated into two components. The heavier red blood cells turned into a clot at the bottom of the tube and the other component a clear serum floated to the top. We now call the clear serum, plasma. Plasma helps the red blood cells flow throughout the bloodstream. Next, Landsteiner mixed one man’s red blood cells with another man’s clear serum. He observed and documented the interactions. From Owen 2. 00. 0 (2) Lansteiner listed his name and the other five colleagues on a chart with the results. From it, I learned Landsteiner had Type O blood. Landsteiner observed two antagonistic reactions and concluded a factor or antigen was at play. He named the antigens (blood proteins) A and B, alphabetically. The third component he isolated he named zero, but wrote it as O, and it got misinterpreted as alphabet O. He used zero because that blood group didn’t react to the antigens A or B.(3) Zimmerman. He called antibodies that destroyed A antigens anti- A antibody and antibodies that destroyed B antigens anti- B antibodies. He found antibodies in a small fraction of the clear serum that we now call gamma globulins. Now, picture a blood tube of separated red cells from the clear serum and read Landsteiner’s Rules listed below: Blood group A red cells carry the A antigen and A serum (clear fluid) contains anti- B antibody. Blood group B red cells carry the B antigen and B serum (clear fluid) contains anti- A antibody. Blood group O red cells carry no antigens and O serum (clear fluid) contains both anti- A and anti- B antibodies. Blood group. AB red cells carry the A and B antigens and AB serum (clear fluid) has no antibodies.  A current rendering of Lansteiner’s Rules from Owens 2. A – B – = ABaa B – = BA – bb  = Aaa  bb  = OIn this manner, by testing large numbers of people for blood group the proportions of blood types emerged and provided a way to make transfusions safe. Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels. When used without further specification, 'blood pressure' usually. Overworked America: 12 Charts That Will Make Your Blood Boil Why 'efficiency' and 'productivity' really mean more profits for corporations and less sanity for you. Confidential Medical Lab Testing Manage Your Health, on Your Terms, at Your Convenience. However, the truth was, the majority of his peers ignored his revolutionary discovery in 1. Disappointed, Landsteiner left blood group work and continued other research projects until World War I intruded. Phillip Levine (a doctor and Landsteiner research associate) wrote that Landsteiner lost his lab facilities, faced personal deprivations and frustrations, as well as starvation during that bleak time. Landsteiner came to America in 1. Doctor Phillip Levine at the Rockefeller Institute. In America twenty- two- years later, he again pursued the antigens on red blood cells. He believed there were more antigens than just A and B (ones he discovered back in 1. To find more antigens, he settled on using rabbits and not humans for his tests. Note to Readers: Landsteiner is the genius and the leader in the lab. He had the ideas, and the devoted lab assistants did the tedious work to prove them, just as he once did. Also, back then he wasn’t looking for antigens, he called them X factors. If you read the old studies the word “factor†is used instead of the more current term “antigen.†For continuity, I use Landsteiner’s name in procedures being done by his doctor assistants. Landsteiner’s goal was to make serum markers or reagents for testing to find new blood factors. Here’s the procedure he used described by Wiener to Zimmerman 1. He injected (. 5cc or 1. A human red blood cells into live rabbits. This immunized the rabbit to the human A antigen, and forced the rabbits to make anti- A antibody. This process also immunized the rabbit against weaker antigens or factors that might also be on the red blood cell. Later, he’d withdraw the blood from the rabbit, isolated the anti- body containing serum, and then mixed it with blood group A human red blood cells (in the lab). Like a magnet the rabbit’s anti- A antibody would attach to the human red blood cells. Then the group A cells with anti- A antibody attached could be removed from the rabbit’s serum. Now, with the anti- A gone, the rabbit’s serum could be challenged with another batch of human group A red cells. If the serum reacted with some but not all, then clearly those that did react carried some unknown factor, the X Factor. As you can see, the work wasn’t difficult, but it had to be slow and tedious. Using the “test serums†developed from the rabbit work, Lansteiner and Levine, announced in 1. M, N, and P. (4) This discovery helped Landsteiner move closer to his goal, which was subdividing mankind into groups and individualities based on blood types. After this joint discovery, Levine left Landsteiner’s lab because his Rockefeller contract ended. Note to Readers: Levine and Wiener were Landsteiner disciples and they started a slugfest over Rh discovery that muddied the waters for decades. Both men worked closely with him, and when Levine left the lab he had to agree to Landsteiner’s rule to abandon all blood work research. This is a gentlemen’s agreement, not a signed contract. Levine honored his promise for almost ten years until called in to consult on a horrific transfusion case at Bellevue hospital in 1. For more on this blood feud, see the next article in this series titled Blood Feud. As Landsteiner’s blood work progressed, man’s close biological kinship to animals was being established. Researchers needed lab animals and monkeys were expensive. Writing in Science 1. Only the highest anthropoid apes—their blood cells being indeed distinguishable from those of man, but have blood group characteristics which are shown to coincide with those of man.†In fact, his blood research proved that the higher up an ape was on the phylogenetic tree the closer its blood profile became to man. By 1. 93. 5 Alexander Wiener worked in the serological laboratory at the chief medical examiner’s office in New York City. Wiener was interested in studying the evolution of agglutinogens M and N in apes and monkeys. Wiener has a free and vast amount of published papers on his ape/ monkey experiments for those interested online. Wiener, working alone, used the same techniques Levine and Landsteiner used to identify the M, N, and P factors, Wiener took anti- M antibodies and anti- N antibodies and proved beyond a shadow of doubt that monkeys had the same M factor in their blood as humans do.(3) This is the same M factor shared by Rh. D and once Rhd blood was discovered, with that blood group as well. This should silence, I hope, the “we have pure blood†groups. To really drive the point home, check out this online article, read the tables in the mid section. Landsteiner suggests to Wiener they next make a new “test serum†injecting cells from related test animals to see if the resulting anti- sera displayed human characteristics. This is the first time two animals are used in the same test. They chose to inject rhesus monkey blood into guinea pigs and rabbits because the rhesus monkey was higher up the phylogenetic tree than sheep. The antisera from the rabbits caused a reaction. This was the successful procedure: They injected rabbits with .
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